San Pietro Avellana
This Page last updated on
.
On this page, I will present information about San
Pietro Avellana, my
mother's
home town.
Hello
Mark & Wilberta,
Quick
question. I am a
bit confused as to the proper province for San Pietro
Avellana. Is it SPA, Isernia, Molise,
Italy OR SPA,
Campobasso, Molise, Italy?
Papers of my
grandfathers use Campobasso.
Thanks!
wendy |
The answer is multiple choice:
1) Isernia
2) Campobasso
3) None of the Above
4) All of the Above
The answer is 4, All of the above. It just depends on when you
are
talking about. The Province of Isernia was created in 1970 from a part
of the Province of Campobasso. (This process was started in 1963
which is sometimes reported as the creation date.)
At the same time, the Region of Abruzzi e Molise was split into two
regions, Abruzzi and Molise.
The newly created Region of Molise contains the Provinces of Isernia and Campobasso but SPA is no
longer part of the Province of Campobasso, it was moved to the newly created Province of Isernia.
If you asked my mother, she always said that she was Abruzzi because
that was where SPA was in the early 1900's.
ciao.
Mark |
Saint Amico, who lived around 1100, is the patron saint of SPA.
His feast day is 3 Nov. Read more about S. Amico in Chapter 2 of the Historical Notes
and Anecdotes from San Pietro Avellana. Read more
about
S. Amico on a web page built by Bob Morrison : http://www.amico.mysite.com
and on my web page here.
SPA in Winter
Photo sent to me by Bruno Colaizzi in Dec of 2009
While the site is being created you can email me
:
markd@silogic.com
or sign the guestbook.
MAP
Here are a set of
postcards that I got on my 2004 trip to San Pietro.
Here are photos of
San Pietro
during and after its destruction by retreating German forces in 1943.
Here are some other
photos that I
scanned at the Museum in San Pietro.
Here are some photos which I
took at the cimitero.
Mark's note - The Museo's web site is no longer operational. From what
I
gather from Giuliano Colajanni, they could not raise the money to run
it.
From the Italy
World Club:
San Pietro Avellana Province
of Isernia, Molise Region - Italy
The small town
rises on the
Celano-Foggia tratturo, on the border with the Abruzzo region, just
below Monte Capraro (1730 meters.) surrounded by forests of beech and
oak
trees and two fine pinewoods, which make it a truly great tourist
destination in the summer.
The name comes from an ancient Benedictine monastery dedicated
to
San
Pietro, around which the population gathered and established a
settlement, later called "Avellana" since on the site there was in the
past Volana, an ancient Samnite town destroyed by Roman consul Suprius
Carvilius.
The town was a Benedictine fiefdom from 1027 to 1785, and religion was
a really great influence in the character of the population. the
economy was flourishing for centuries under the transhumance system,
since the area was both a transit post and a place of summer pastures.
With the crisis of the pastoral economy, a massive emigration began
especially to the States, with main destination Pittsburgh.
Province of Campobasso, Molise Region, Italy
The Province of Campobasso is administratively divided into 84
Municipalities with a surface area of 2909 square km and a population,
in the census of the year 2000, of 235,452 inhabitants. The present
territory of the Province was not the same as in past centuries. After
the unity of Italy, in 1861, the borders of the whole Molise region
were fixed along the Fortore and Volturno rivers and the region was
united to Abruzzo for about a century.
After the Second World War there was a strong movement to make the
region autonomous, and in December 1964 a constitutional law
established Molise as an independent region with one Province, and
capital Campobasso. On 2 February 1970 52 municipalities of this
Province were separated and a new Province, Isernia, was established.
Province of Isernia, Molise Region, Italy
All in the middle of the Apennine chain, between the Thyrrenian and the
Adriatic but unconnected to the sea, the territory of the Province,
where the most ancient presence of man in Europe was recorded, can
offer important signs of the presence of many civilizations:
pre-historic settlements, Samnite fortresses, Roman towns, imposing
medieval castles, Romanesque and baroque churches, as well as a natural
landscape that for the uniqueness of the vegetation and wildlife is now
included in parks and natural reserves.
The territory has a rich heritage of the transhumance economy of past
ages, when twice each year thousands and thousands of shepherds from
Abruzzo and Molise traveled with millions of sheep down to the Apulian
plains and then back to the mountain pastures: over 100 km of grass
highways, 111 mt wide, crossing the landscape, and leaving their marks
in the face of the land and the customs of the people. The Province of
Isernia was established only in 1970 with 52 Municipalities previously
belonging to the Province of Campobasso.
Altitude:
960 m a.s.l
Territory: mountainous
Population: ca. 650 inhabitants
Zip code: 86088
Phone Area Code: 0865
Patron Saint: Sant'Amico
Frazioni & Località: Scalo,
Masserie di Cristo
WHAT
TO SEE:
Church of Sant'Amico with
13th-century statues
rises on the highest point of the town, where once the fortress was.
Inside there is under the altar the original tomb of the Saint, a
Benedictine monk. In 1623 his remains were however moved to a stone
ark.
Parish Church of SS. Pietro e Paolo
Municipality Museum
FESTIVITIES
August: Emigrants' Festival
August: week of "Museo
della civiltà contadina".
A History of San Pietro Avellana
A real rough computer translation of a brief history with clean up by
me. Click on the
title to see the original page.
SAN
PIETRO AVELLANA
Paese di emigrazione. E’passato dai 2532 abitanti del 1911
agli
attuali
circa 700 presenti. Si è svuotato quasi completamente. Si
trova
sul tracciato del tratturo Celano-Foggia, di cui occupa parzialmente un
segmento.
Feudo ecclesiastico benedettino dal 1027 al 1785, con unione di potere
spirituale e potere baronale. Molti sono gli influssi e sani principi
educativi e spirituali tra gli abitanti, che hanno ancora un buon
ricordo del passato.
Il paese era fiorente ai tempi della transumanza, in quanto si tratta
di una località di transito e con pascoli montani. Questi a
metà Ottocento vennero messi a coltura, con buone rese nei
primi
anni, ma via via sempre più improduttivi.
Il primo esodo si verificò nei 50 anni a cavallo del '900,
con
destinazione Stati Uniti. La più importante
comunità di
oriundi vive a Pittsburg (Pennysilvania) con circa 400 persone. A
Denver (Colorado) vivono altri paesani. Prospero Fazzini qui
fondò negli anni Trenta una prospera Banca, che
aprì
anche una sua filiale a San Pietro Avellana, a dimostrazione del forte
legame etnico verso la propria terra (elemento comune a tutti gli
emigrati "americani", benemeriti per aver aiutato finanziariamente la
ricostruzione del paese, distrutto completamente dai tedeschi nel
novembre 1943).
In Argentina vive una comunità di circa 200 oriundi, che a
causa
dei costi elevati dei passaggi aerei hanno da tempo diradate le visite,
ormai solo sporadiche. Nel secondo dopoguerra gli emigrati si sono
diretti in Europa, specie Francia (qui vivono circa 200 oriundi) e
Svizzera (circa 200 oriundi).
D'estate si verifica un notevole incremento delle iniziative culturali,
ludico-sportive, turistiche, a beneficio di tutti i residenti estivi
(turisti e paesani rientrati). San Pietro Avellana si sta affermando
come stazione di soggiorno montano, puntando anche alla promozione del
tartufo. Il "tuber aestivum"(scorzone) è sulle tavole
dell'annuale Sagra del tartufo, che nel 1997 ha svolto la 8^ edizione.
Il "Museo Etnografico Comunale" accoglie molti visitatori, fungendo da
gradito richiamo anche per gli emigrati, sempre attenti a conoscere la
storia paesana.
Il Comune sta promuovendo diverse iniziative per lo sviluppo
dell'agriturismo, del turismo religioso (pellegrinaggi organizzati al
bosco di S. Amico e
cenobio), del turismo culturale (studio del
territorio, della sua gente e della sua storia), e del Parco "Alto
Molise".
Il 3 novembre cade la festa liturgica di S. Amico, che anticamente
veniva celebrata come festa patronale e fiera. Per venire incontro alle
esigenze degli emigrati è stata spostata al 16 agosto, in
cui
cade anche la Festa dell’Emigrante, nonchè la
Sagra del
Tartufo.
|
SAN
PIETRO AVELLANA
Country of emmigration. It went from 2532 inhabitants in 1911 to
approximately 700 at present. It has been emptied nearly completely. It
is found on the layout of the Treaty of Celano-Foggia, of which it
occupies a partial segment.
It was a Benedictine Ecclesiastical Fiefdom from 1027 to 1785, being a
union of spiritual and baronial power. Many are the influences and
healthy principles educated to you and spiritual between the
inhabitants, that they still have a good memory of the past.
The country was flourishing to the times of the transhumance system, in
how much draft of one transit locality and with montani pastures. In
the middle of the 1800's came improvements to cultivation, with good
yields in the first years, but gradually became more and more
unproductive.
The first exodus took place in the 50 years around 1900, with United
States as the destination. The more important destination communities
were Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania) with approximately 400 persons. To
Denver (Colorado) lives other countrymen. 31 year old Prospero Fazzini
founded a Bank there and opened a branch (office) in San Pietro
Avellana, to demonstrate the strong ethnic tie towards his own roots
(an element common to all the emmigrant "Americans", meritorious in
order to have financially helped the reconstruction of the village,
destroyed by the Germans in November 1943).
In Argentina lives a community of approximately 200 people, but because
of the high cost of airfare, they make only sporadic vists. In the
years after the
Second World War the emmigrants have headed to Europe, especially
France (where approximately 200 descendents live) and Switzerland
(approximately 200 decendents).
Of summer verification a remarkable increment of the cultural,
ludico-sport, tourist initiatives, beneficio.di all the summer
residents (tourists and countrymen return). San Pietro
Avellana is asserting itself like stay station mounts, heading also for
the promotion of the tartufo. "tuber aestivum" (scorzone) he is on the
tables of the "Sagra del tartufo", than in 1997 he has carried out 8th
edition.
The "Museo Etnografico Comunale" receives many visitors, acting as from
appreciate callback also for the e'migre's, always wanting to know
the history of the home country.
The town has promoted various initiatives for the development of the
farm holidays, of the religious tourism (pilgrimages organized to
the forest of S. Amico
and cenobio), of the cultural tourism (study of
the territory, its people and its history), and the Park "Alto Molise".
3 November falls the liturgica festivity of S. Amico, than anciently
came celebrated like patronale festivity and fair. In order to come
encounter to the requirements of the emmigrants, it has been
moved
to 16 August, in which the "Festa dell’Emigrante" falls also,
nonchè the "Sagra del Tartufo".
|
Arcipreti of SS Pietro e Paolo Chiesa
This list of head priests and priests are from the book "Il Mio Paese
Racconta" by Mario Colaianni 1996
Giovanni Salvatore 1769-1812
Paolantonio del Re 1815-1860
(Arcipreti at the time of the compliation of the 1852
Status Animarum)
Giovanni Frazzini
1862-1903 (Arcipreti at the time of the compliation of the 1869
Status Animarum)
Sabatino Frazzini
1903-1921
Liborio di Comso 1921-1946
Francesco Riga
1947-1949
Sacerdoti
Domenico diCroce ????-1709
Donato Catullo
1709-1727
Antonio Cioffi
1727-1730
Amico Morelli
1730-1740
Nunzio Salvatore 1740-1759
Biagio Iannacchione 1759-1843 ???? 84
years?
Gaetano diGiacomo 1843-1843 ???? 1 year?
See note 2 below.
Gaetano Gatta
1843-1852
Giuseppe diSanza 1852-1862
Amico Frazzini
1862-1873
Gaetano d'Alena 1873-1873
????? 1 year? Gaetano d'Alena died in
1873.
Antonio d'Alena
1873-1892
Domenico diSanza 1892-1898
--- none
Michele Messore 1949-1974
Francesco Sciullo 1974-1982
Marco Franceschino diGiacomo 1982-1987
Felice Fangio
1987-
See note 1 below,
Mark's notes
1: I met Don Felice while I was in SPA in August 2004.
2: A copy of a baptism record (copied in 1815) is signed by
Gaetano diGiacomo.
Il Clero Sanpietrese since
1689
Alfonso
diSanza d'Alena sent me this list in Feb 2008. It
contains some additional information from the 2001 book by Pasquale
Settefrati.
|
|
Nome
|
|
Date of Death
(age at death)
|
Note
|
|
1
|
D. Domenico De Cruce (Di Croce)
|
Sacerdote
|
23 dic 1709
|
“… cuius corpus sepoltum
est…altare Beata Verginis Mariae Rosaris”
|
|
2
|
D. Donato Catullo
|
Curato
|
16 nov 1727
|
“… cuius corpus sepoltum
est in ecclesia Matrici coram altare B. V. Mariae
|
|
3
|
D. Alessandro Larsi
|
Rettore
|
18 sep 1729
|
“In palatio Cassinense Anima Deo
reddidit, cuius corpus sepultus est in ecclesia Divi Amici, Confessione
recepita a me et a D. Antonio Ciuffo, et etiam a Mariano Marino
Dominicale Castri Sangri, et Sacro Oleo rederato a D. Antonio Cioffo,
da consisterai Reverendissimi D. Jacobus Boniti, et Reverendissimo
Frà I. Isidori… ambi Monachi Sacerdotis
Casinensis, et etiam Sacro Viatico recepita a Rev. D. Isidori de
Srì a Parma, ego D. Amicus de Morello Archipresbitero fide
facie…”
|
|
4
|
D. Antonio De Cioffo (Cioffi)
|
Sacerdote
|
13 jun 1730
|
““… cuius
corpus sepoltum est in ecclesia Matrici… altare SS.
Conceptionis
|
|
5
|
D. Amico Morelli
|
Curato
|
24 aug 1740 (83)
|
“… cuius corpus sepoltum
est in Ecclesia Matricis”
|
|
6
|
D. Giovanni Salvatore
|
Arciprete
|
1812
|
Arciprete dal 1760 al 1812
|
|
7
|
D. Biase Iannacchione
|
Sacerdote
|
4 jan. 1843 (63)
|
|
|
8
|
D. Gaetano Di Giacomo
|
Sacerdote
|
9 feb. 1843 (age at death 73)
|
|
|
9
|
D. Gaetano Gatti
|
Sacerdote
|
30 apr 1852 (75)
|
|
|
10
|
D. Paolantonio Del Re
|
Arciprete
|
Roccasicura, Aug 1860
|
Arciprete dal 1815 al 1860
|
|
11
|
D. Giuseppe Di Sanza
|
Sacerdote
|
5 mar 1862 (41)
|
|
|
12
|
D. Amico Frazzini
|
Sacerdote
|
22 feb 1873 (55)
|
|
|
13
|
D. Gaetano D’Alena
|
Sacerdote
|
26 apr 1873 (64)
|
|
|
14
|
D. Antonio D’Alena
|
Sacerdote
|
11 may 1892 (87)
|
|
|
15
|
D. Domenico Di Sanza
|
Sacerdote
|
7 mar 1898 (63)
|
|
|
16
|
D. Giovanni Frazzini
|
Arciprete
|
21 jan 1903 (79)
|
Arciprete dal 1862 al 1903
|
|
17
|
D.
Sabatino Frazzini
|
Arciprete
|
-
|
Arciprete dal 1903 al ?
|
Sources: Libri Parrocchiali
dei morti,
1824-1853; 1854-1880; 1689-1742; Libro Parrocchiale Baptizatorum,
1829-1843.-
Bibliografy: I
documenti storici e
la vita di San Pietro Avellana, P. Settefrati, Ed.
Edigrafital,
2002; Il Molise dalle origini ai nostri giorni,
vol. III, G.
Masciotta, Rist. Ed. Tip. Lampo Ed., Campobasso, 1968.
The
Mayors of San Pietro Avellana from 1809 to 1903
Alfonso
diSanza d'Alena sent me this list of Mayors of SPA.
|
Surname
|
First
name
|
Year
|
|
Quaranta
|
Tommaso
|
1809
|
|
Di Giacomo
|
Ferdinando
|
1810
|
|
Colaianni
|
Costanzo
|
1811-1812
|
|
Colaianni
|
Girolamo
|
1813-1815
|
|
Colaianni
|
Costanzo
|
1815-1821
|
|
Carlino
|
Francesco
|
1822-1825
|
|
Di Ianni
|
Arcangelo
|
1825-1828
|
|
Carlino
|
Cosmo
|
1828-1831
|
|
Frazzini
|
Clemente
|
1831-1834
|
|
Petracca
|
Gregorio
|
1834-1836
|
|
Mariani
|
Giuseppe
|
1837-1840
|
|
Carlino
|
Nicola
|
1840-1842
|
|
Di Florio
|
Sabatino
|
1843-1846
|
|
Di Martino
|
Emanuele
|
1846-1848
|
|
Labate
|
Pasquale
|
1849
|
|
D’Alena
|
Federico
|
1850
|
|
Carlino
|
Giacomo
|
1851-1853
|
|
Di Martino
|
Emanuele
|
1854-1856
|
|
Frazzini
|
Giosuè
|
1857-1860
|
|
D’Alena
|
Pietro
|
1860-1861
|
|
Checchia
|
Federico
|
1861-1864
|
|
Di Florio
|
Sabatino
|
1864-1865
|
|
Mariani
– ff.
|
Gennaro
|
1865-1866
|
|
Di Sanza
– ff.
|
Pasquale
|
1865-1866
|
|
Di Giacomo
– ff.
|
Giovanni
|
1867
|
|
Mosca
– ff.
|
Giovanni
|
1868
|
|
Capone
|
Pasquale
|
1868-1869
|
|
Di Sanza
|
Domenico
|
1870-1871
|
|
Di Giacomo
|
Lorenzo
|
1871-1873
|
|
Frazzini
|
Pasquale
|
1874-1875
|
|
Matricoli
- R. Comm.
|
avv. Antonio
|
1876-1877
|
|
Carlino
– ff.
|
Paolo
|
1877
|
|
Di Sanza
– ff.
|
Ambrogio
|
1877-1878
|
|
Angelone
|
Eugenio
|
1878-1882
|
|
Carlino
– ff.
|
Consalvo
|
1882
|
|
Frazzini
– ff.
|
Pasquale
|
1883
|
|
Capone
– ff.
|
Pasquale
|
1883-1884
|
|
Di Sanza
|
Cristoforo
|
1884-1886
|
|
Di Pulli
|
Carmelo
|
1886-1889
|
|
Capone
– ff.
|
Domenico
|
1890
|
|
Frazzini
– ff.
|
Ippolito
|
1890-1892
|
|
Di
Ciò
|
not. Lorenzo
|
1892-1895
|
|
Frazzini
|
Pasquale
|
1895-1896
|
|
Salvatore
|
Giacinto
|
1896-1899
|
|
Di
Ciò
|
not.
Lorenzo
|
1899-1901
|
|
Mariani
|
Domenico
|
1901-1902
|
|
Labate
|
Sabatino
|
1902-1903
|
|
Pini
– R. Comm.
|
dott.
Emilio
|
1903
|
|
Vernucci
|
Serafino
|
1903-1905
|
|
Di Tullo
|
Amico
|
1905-19….
|
Bibliography:
Il Molise dalle origini ai nostri giorni, vol. III – G.
Masciotta.
Surnames in San Pietro Avellana
I thought it would be interesting to look at the frequency of cognome
in the SPA birth records. I based this on work done by Shirley
Sinclaire and Cris Swetye. I took most of the birth records from 1809
to 1899 and pulled out the family name. Then I 'normalized' them, that
is, where spelling changed over the century, I used the latest spelling
(for example, Abbate -> l'Abbate -> Labate). Names
starting with
d' or di, are written as NAME/d and NAME/di. Then I counted them and sorted
the final list in ascending order by number of births. When looking at
this list, keep in mind that many years are missing from the microfilms
and sometimes the writing is very hard to read. This is a total of 5562
births.
1
Acicino
1 Acierno
1 Amatangiolo
1 Amicis/de
1 Argentino
1 Avocone
1 Balzano
1 Barone
1 Bisacchi
1 Bisadtili
1 Blasio
1 Borazio
1 Bruni
1 Calabrese
1 Caracchia
1 Carlo/di
1 Carmasino
1 Celicchio |
1
Celina
1 Cifolelli
1 Cinci
1 Colangelo
1 Colantuono
1 Colaselli
1 Conti
1 Coracchia
1 Covatta
1 Ferri
1 Frabizio
1 Franceschini
1 Galanello
1 Giosoza
1 Giuliano
1 Iannidinardo
1 Iono
1 Lattanzio |
1
Leone
1 Luca/di
1 Lucente
1 Mancinelli
1 Mastronardi
1 Mazzaferra
1 Milano
1 Monacelli
1 Mosesso
1 Onorato
1 Oscato
1 Paolantonio
1 Pennotti
1 Petronilla
1 Petruniello
1 Petruzelli
1 Petruzziello
1 Piccarelli/di
1 Picotti |
1
Prati
1 Sabetta
1 Sammarone
1 Sangliane
1 Santo/di
1 Schellino
1 Seville
1 Silvestri
1 Simone
1 Sulli
1 Testa
1 Tristano
1 Valerio
1 Vendi/di
1 Vito/di
2 Ambrosio/di
2 Amicone
2 Angiolino |
2
Antonucci
2 Apollonio
2 Cactani
2 Calvitti
2 Cavaliere
2 Cetra
2 Cio/di
2 Colacelli
2 Dublino
2 Esposito
2 Ferrante
2 Iannacito
2 Lattantino
2 Mario/di
2 Mezzanotte
2 Nunzio/di
2 Piccoli
2 Quadri/della
2 Rienzo/di |
2
Ruscetti
2 Salattolo
2 Sano/di
2 Santarelli
2 Spagnolo
3 Baiocchetti
3 Buzzelli
3 Caetani
3 Colarelli
3 Nardo/di
3 Parente
3 Pettinelli
3 Sabatini
3 Troilo
4 Lembo
4 Monaco
4 Pannunzio
4 Piscitani
4
Stefani/di |
4 Stefanis/di
5 Casciato
5 Giampaolo
5 Ciccarelli
5 Nardo
5 Pavone
5 Salotto
5 Zuliani
6 Caroselli
6 Checchia
6 Marracino
6 Scaglione
6 Vincenzo/di
7 Capita/di
8 Achille/d
8 Donatone
8 Iannone
9 Colavecchio
10 Tempesta
|
11
Vernucci
12 Iacovetti
14 Rusciolelli
14 Lombardi
14 Perilli
16 Fraini
18 Donatelli
20 Petrarca
20 Vacciano
24 Alena/d
25 Mazzocco
25 Morgano
27 Capone
30 Carratelli
30 Salvatore
32 Ciotoli
32 Iasella
33 Giancola
34 Mastroianni |
36
Sozio
37 Angelone
46 Fantone
46 Palumbo
47 Acquafondata
48 Gentile
51 Cinea
51 Pierro/di
57 Cioffi
58 Rossi
60 Settefrati
65 Ludovico/di
65 Tonti
75 Croce/di
87 Iullo/di
94 Lorenzo/di
97 Croce/della
98 Quaranta
101 Martino/di |
103
Labate
114 Colarosa
117 Tella/di
119 Gatti
143 Iannacchione
146 Florio/di
157 Mariani
157 Ricci
164 Musilli
166 Cianno/di
175 Colaizzi
211 Giacomo/di
236 Morelli
237 Sanza/di
449 Carlini
451 Frazzini
477 Colaianni |
Here are the name "normalizations" that I did:
Abate, L'abbate ->
Labate
Achille -> Achille/d
Alena -> Alena/d
Capita -> Capita/di
Carlino -> Carlini
Colaizzo ->Colaizzi
Colajanni -> Colaianni
Croce -> Croce/di
Florio -> Florio/di
Fraino -> Fraini
Frazzino -> Frazzini
Gatta -> Gatti
Giacomo -> Giacamo/di
Iullo -> Iullo/di
Jacovetta -> Iacovetti
Lorenzo -> Lorenzo/di
Ludovico -> Ludovico/di
Martino -> Martino/di
Mastrojanni -> Mastroianni
Musillo -> Musilli
Pierro -> Pierro/di
Sanza -> Sanza/di
Tella -> Tella/di
Fontana Grande
There are fountains all over SPA and here is the main fountain right
next to the church. I took this photo in 2004.
This photo of the plaque and the translation was sent to me by Anna
Gloria Carlini.
Lapide
in pietra datata 1788 posta sulla "Fontana Grande" a San
Pietro Avellana
Memorial
tablet dated 1788 placed on the FONTANA GRANDE (Great Fountain) in
San Pietro Avellana
Translation
(from latin)
With
public expenditure
Amico
Giancola Leonardo Mariani and Pasquale DiSanza
administrators of San Pietro Avellana
erected
a fountain for the citizens
on July 1° 1788
Another translation with help from Dan
Diffendale (his
web stite)
ÆRE PUBLICO
AMICUS GIANCOLA LEO=
NARDUS ANT MARIANI &
PASCHALIS DE SANZA
ADMINISTRATORES
PETRI DE AVELLANA CIUIBUS
FONTEM EREXERUNT
KAL JULII MDCCLXXXVIII
With public money,
Amico Giancola, Leonardo Antonio Mariani
and Pasquale DiSanza,
the administrators, erected (this) fountain for the citizens of San
Pietro Avellana,
the Kalends
of July (July 1), 1788.
Famine and Typhus
Epidemic of 1817
As I was going through the records from San Pietro Avellana, I noticed
a large change in the number of birth and death records for 1817:
|
Births
|
Deaths |
| 1816 |
52 |
31 |
| 1817 |
37 |
308 |
| 1818 |
29 |
25 |
| 1819 |
70 |
29 |
1820
|
48 |
18 |
In 1815, Tambora, a large volcano on the island of Sambawa, east of
Java Indonesia, exploded. The eruption was the largest explosive
eruption in modern times, immediately killing 92,000 people after
blasting 150 cubic kilometers of earth into the air.
Around the same time, the effects of the French Revolution and 25 years
of rule by Napoleon Bonaparte had left the European economy in ruins.
The British blockade of Europe had destroyed markets and the entire
region was in a depressed economic state.
Late monsoons in India caused heavy rains, that following a drought,
blighted the rice crop.
In Western Europe, colder than normal weather, caused by the Tambora
volcano, along with increased rainfall, prevented bees from foraging,
creating a shortage of honey. Wet harvested trees would not dry,
causing a doubling of the price of firewood in Northern Europe.
All over Europe, the harvest output dropped. Estimates are that less
than one-half of the normal grain crop was produced.
All of these factors combined to cause a shortage of food throughout
Europe. In many northern countries, the shortage was dramatic but not
devastating. In Italy and other southern European countries, a state of
famine existed.
On the heels of the famine, a typhus epidemic struck Italy in 1817.
There are many cases in history where a famine, which lowers the
general level of health, is followed by an epidemic.
The end came as quickly as its onset. The epidemic subsided and a
normal harvest in 1817 resulted
in a return to normal life by 1818.
My cousin, Alfonso diSanza, sent me this email:
In
1817, in San Pietro Avellana broke out
the plague.
Maybe the first died for this cause was in 26/06/1817, the last
27/12/1817. The plague killed 300 people; between them only 30 died for
famine.
Alfonso
So in the small town of San Pietro Avellana, 307 people died in 1817,
92 in the month of August alone. That might have been 10% of the
population in one year. They included my 3G Grandmother, Lucia Iasella
(40y), and my 5G Grandfather, Tommaso diTella (88y).
Take a look at:
Early-life
conditions and later mortality in Italy, mid-eighteenth to late
nineteenth century
Where the authors state:
Short-term
economic crises appear to impact more in
Madregolo than in Casalguidi. In the former community a 10 percent
increase in prices implied 6.8 percent increase in mortality (45-80
years), while in the latter it led to 5.7 percent increase (tables 2-3,
models 2). The different period covered by the two data-sets can
explain this difference. The Napoleon years, going from 1799 to 1815,
represented a dramatic period in the history of Northern and Central
Italy, and its consequences were particularly heavy also on prices and
local markets, as shown in figure 5 in relation to the time series of
wheat prices for Madregolo. In the market of the city of Parma, the
mean value of wheat price in the first 20 years of the nineteenth
century was 30.5 £/q, about 50 percent higher than the mean
value
of the period 1821-83 (20.0 £/q). The conclusive act of such
a
hard period was the typhus epidemic of 1816-17.
From:
FAMINE
and
PESTILENCE
In
409 CE
Spain was invaded by the barbarians, whom they welcomed as relief from
the oppressive
taxation of the Roman governors. However, the barbarians continually
ravished and
destroyed the country for two years, with no intent of settling down to
a peaceful
existence. Finally, when a general famine was followed by plague, and
their numbers
drastically reduced, they made peace. Absolutely incredible stupidity!
All of Spain was
parceled out among three tribes of barbarians, and the Romans were no
more.
From:
The
Irish Famine: 1845-9
In
1816, when Peel was Chief Secretary for Ireland,
the
first major failure of the potato crop had occurred. In 1817 the
situation deteriorated into a near-famine which was accompanied by an
outbreak of typhus. Between 1822 and 1826 there were further food
shortages in Ireland. When the 'blight' - which already was affecting
large parts of Europe - appeared in Britain in 1846, Ireland was more
likely to suffer than the rest of the country. The Irish population
had exploded in the first half of the nineteenth century, reaching
about 8.5 million by 1845 without any accompanying economic
improvement. Furthermore, the fungus which caused blight was unknown to
the scientists of the day so no remedy was possible.
Monument to the
Fallen (Monumento ai caduti)
In the town piazza of SPA, there was constructed in MCMXXI (1921) a
Monument to the Fallen of WWI. The monument lists the period MCMXV-
MCMXVIII (1915-1918).
You can see old postcards of the monument on the SPA Postcards page.
From Ron Frazzini: "The
front of the monument says:
"To
the brave who sacrificed their lives on the altar of the Fatherland,
here consecrated to the gratitude of the new Italy."" Ron
sent more photos, click here.
Here are two closeup photos of the monument which shows the names of
the dead. I took these photos on my 2004
trip to SPA.
Died from Wounds
Fedele Fraini is the brother of Florindo
Fraini. |
Died from Sickness
 |
For a celebration which might
be connected to the dedication of this monument, click
here.
Masserie di San Pietro Avellana
In one email, my cousin Giuliano, mentioned that some people we were
searching for might be living at the "farmhouses" near SPA.
He called them masserie. He said the main one was called Cerri and was
about 3km from SPA in the direction of the cemetery. Others were near
the Sangro River and 4-5 km south in the direction of the train station.
I also found a place called "Fattorie di San Pietro Avellana". This
place was on the Sangro, north of SPA.
Bill Colianni sent me this email when I asked him about the
masserie:
Date:
Sun, 14 Jan 2007 19:40:47 -0500
From:
"William D. Colianni"
Subject:
Re: masserie
Hi Mark,
Masserie in our
dialect equals farm houses or livable residences
detached from the village. I Cerri is a very small subdivision, farming
community, of SPA north of the Cemetery. Example; the Di Iullo masseria
was a farm house, where nearby they built some small condos, between
the village and the train station.
The masseria
that I was in is located by the Sangro near by the
Tratturo approximately one kilometer before the Sangro or you are right
4 or 5 kilometers north of the cemetery.
You definitely
have my permission to add my
story to your web site. It
was written with that intention. My Grandson is pushing me to send it
for publication. What is your opinion? I treasure it very
much.
With the
greatest pleasure of your web site I am now in communication with
Shirley Sinclaire Colianni. We are related and know about each others
families.
Your
contribution and expertise reenacted and contributed to our native
area history and heritage that every Sanpietrese (Molisano) should
extend their thanks and gratitude to you and your efforts for your
continued services.
Fattorie
equals, I believe "LA FORNACE", it is located by the train
station or across from "LA TORRE" an ex-cheese factory located on the
line with the Abruzzo region. They would
be located in opposite direction of the Sangro and the Cerri. I do not
remember any factories by the Sangro. When I left Italy in 1949 there
were no factories in the area.
Best
Regards,
Bill C. |
Americanization of Names
I don't believe the old story that the officials at Ellis Island
changed the names. I don't think I've ever seen that in the records.
The names might be spelled wrong on the ship's manifests but that's
all. I've also come to
realize that when the Ellis Island records were two pages, the first
page (with the name) was filled out as they were boarding (most likely
written
by an Italian) and second page was done when they landed at Ellis
Island. Take a look
at They Changed Our Name at Ellis
Island
by Donna Przecha.
Here are some of the variations of names from San Pietro Avellana that
I've seen in my searches. Sometimes the immigrant changed to the
Americanized version. Other times, that is just how English speakers
spelled the name after hearing it.
SPA Name
|
Americanzied Name
|
Acquafondata
|
Fondi
Fondata
Fondie
Fondy
|
d'Achille
|
Daley
|
diPierro
|
Pierce
|
Ricci
|
Riche
Ritche
Richie
Ritchie
Richi
|
| Carlini/o |
Carline
Carlins
Carlo |
Morelli
|
Morrelli
|
Colajanni
Colaianni
|
Colian
Collian
Coliani
Colianni
Coliann
Colianne
Colon
Coliano
Colaiano
|
della Croce
|
Croce
Cross
Crowe
|
diLorenzo
|
Lorenzo
Direnzo
|
| diIullo |
Diullo
Rullo |
diCroce
|
DiCrow
DiCrowe
DeCrow
|
Quaranta
|
Forty
|
| diTella |
Detell |
| Cinea |
Cino |
| diMartino |
Martini
Demartini |
| Settefrati |
Sevenbrothers |
| Colarosa |
Carmel
Coloroso |
| Rusciolelli |
Rossorelli
Ross |
| Iannacchione |
Rossolo
Tannacchione
Tannachion
Unico and Unicke (a branch in Pittsburgh) |
The only rule about "di"
and "de" in
the family name is there was no rule.
I've found in the oldest microfilms (1809), family names were written
this way:
Giacomo (d')
And it was indexed under "G". Later on it became:
(di)
Giacomo
And it was still indexed under "G". Then later:
diGiacomo
And it was indexed under "D". Then later:
DiGiacomo
was used in the 20th century. In all cases,
though, it was "di"
and not
"de". I
think the "de"
came from Americanization. In Italian, "di" is
pronounced DEE where in English, "di"
is pronounced DIE. To get the
same sound in English, it was written "de" which is
pronounced DEE.
My dad told me that spelling was never taught in the schools in Italy.
In Italian almost every letter is pronounced so words are written as
they are spoken and spoken as they are written. The way it was actually
spelled did not seem to be very important.
Here are some first names:
Name in Italian
|
Americanzied Name
|
Amico
|
Mike
|
Giuseppe
|
Joseph
|
| Giuseppa |
Josephine |
Giovanni
|
John
|
Giovanna
|
Julia, Joan
|
Domenico
|
Domenic, Thomas
|
Sabatino
|
Sam
|
Michele
|
Mike
|
| Eufamia |
Fannie, Frances |
| Camillo |
Charles, Camille |
Ermenegildo
|
James
|
| Gennaro |
James |
| Giosuè |
Joshua |
| Vincenzo |
Vincent,
James |
| Margherita |
Daisy |
| Pasquale |
Patsy, Patrick, Charles |
Giacomo
|
Jake
|
| Guillermo
|
William, Bill
|
| Luigi |
Louis, Louie |
| Aloisio |
Aloysius,
Luigi |
| Nunzio |
Joseph |
| Gaetano |
Guy |
| Assunta |
Susan |
More about Italian Names and their English Equivalents - click
here or click
here.
WWII Newspaper
Articles
Here are three articles I found in the newspapers in 1943.
A booklet in Italian giving the history of SPA. We are attempting to
translate it.
Photos from SPA
by Ron Frazzini
The following set of
photos are from Ron
Frazzini <schermaron
gmail.com> . He has been to SPA several times.
He sent some photos and a naration from 1998 and 2001 visits. From Ron
(presented with his
permission) including his narative:
"Here
is a
representative
sampling of some SPA pictures:
This is the
main street with
an indication of
the conditions there. Some boarded up, some active.
|
This is the
town as you drive in
from the highway. Beautiful. The mix
of old and new is apparent immediately.
Things were
pretty much destroyed as the Germans pulled out. |
View of the
town from atop a
rise. The
town backs up against a small range of mountains. |
The church
which was not
destroyed during the
war. Here it is seen
through two
more modern buildings. There are many records here
but
guarded by the
alter ladies and a grumpy priest. I finally got to
see
my dad's
baptism records, but only because I knew the approximate date.
|
The monument in
the
piazza. It's to WW1 and WW2 dead and wounded. The
side with some of the
Frazzini names appears below. The front of the monument says:
"To
the brave who sacrificed their lives on the altar of the Fatherland,
here consecrated to the gratitude of the new Italy." |
As you can see,
there are
some
familiar names.
The mysterious
thing is the "Per Malattie" which
literally means "for or during sickness" - so,
I'm guessing
these were not wounded ("ferite") but died of some other
illness during the war.
The opposite
side has more familiar
names. |
Jacque and I
had lunch with
Maria
Ricci Frazzini. She at that time was 92, very hard of hearing,
had somewhat of a hard to understand dialect, but we
communicated. Her son is Amico Frazzini who is my age, and his
son is Giuseppe, all names in my family tree. I met both Amico
and Giuseppe in Bergamo and the resemblance of Amico to my dad was
amazing.
[Mark's note: in case you didn't guess, that's Ron with Maria
Ricci
Frazzini.]
[Mark's note: in 2012, I received a photo of Maria's tombstone :
12 Oct 1908 - 2 Nov 2006] |
One of the
residential streets. |
Just so you
knew there were
actual people there, this is a Confirmation ceremony at the
piazza. The priest is just to the left of the woman in the red
skirt. A parade made its way from the church to a makeshift altar
in the piazza, then back to the church. Everyone in town was
out. |
This is a
small chapel about
three miles out of town in the hills.
It is important
to us
because of the dedication which is shown below. |
A try at the
translation
yields
the following.
"To God
(almighty or omnipotent) in honor of the miraculous St.
Amico,
monk and hermit, who revealed much in this woods to the devoted. At the
dawn of the twentieth century, they built this chapel,
solemnly
blessed by the arch priest Sabatino Frazzini, on October 1, 1906,
to the grand servant of God, Amico, who always was our friend and
protector."
The Amico's in
what I believe to be a branch in my family tree were all
named for this Amico, one of which is Maria Ricci's son.
[Mark's note: This Sabatino
Frazzini is my
great-great-uncle, Sabatino Antonio Frazzini born 11 Mar 1845.
My
mother remembered that he was a priest.] |
Finally, at
least for this
round,
here are the famous record books at the archives in
Isernia. Many
of these have been photographed by the Mormons, but there are still
some death records that apparently were not recorded. These are quite
fragile, and will not last another 100 years. |
My thanks to Ron for these photos and the commentary.
Photos from SPA
by Mike Ricci 2009
I found these photos on the Flickr web site. Taken by Mike
Ricci.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/9470308@N05/sets/72157600700693117/
I don't know who this Mike Ricci is. I tried to email him several times
via the Flickr account but I never got a response.
Photos from SPA by John DiIullo 2008
From:
John DiIullo <johndiiulloyahoo.com>
Date:
Mon, 21 Jan 2008 09:22:15 -0800 (PST)
Hi Mark,
If you are interested
I have some photos of my trip this summer to SPA with my
daughter. Here is the link to the page:
http://web.mac.com/johndiiullo/iWeb/Site/San%20Pietro%20Avellana%20Photos.html
Hope you like them.
Regards,
John DiIullo
Life in San Pietro Avellana
In this section, I am going to put some comments of mine about life in
San Pietro Avellana.
Ebolina
Carlini's report card
My cousin Nino Carlini had a 4th grade report card for his aunt Ebolina
Carlini. It is for the school year 1910-11. Just looking at it tells a
lot
about life in SPA during that time. My first thought was that the
report card looked very much like my 4th grade report card from
Aliquippa, PA in 1958. So although SPA was a small town in the
mountains of Italy, the education system was modern 20th
century. I
have scans of the four pages of the report card but they are too big to
post here. Here are the words on the cover page:
Scuole
Pubbliche Elementari
del comune di S. Pietro Avelana
Pagella Scolastica
dell'alunna
Carlini Ebolina
Classe - quarta Anno
- 1910-1911
The second page:
Certificato
D'Inscrizione
Carlini Ebolina figlia di Giovanni
di professione muratore e di Enrichetta
di Tella
nata a S. Pietro Avellana il 17 gennaio
1900
abitante in Via Umberto 1° N. 17,
avendo presentato i documenti di legge,
e stata regolarmente inscritta alla classe quarta di questo comune
diretta dalla Maestra Giulia Roberti Mariani.
li 7 febbraio 1911
il Direttore
Felice Frazzini
Felice Frazzini, a cousin, was the brother of Ferdinando Frazzini,
and was
involved in teaching all his life. It is interesting that they list the
father's occupation on the card. This had to be because there were only
a couple of dozen family names and only a few more given names. There
could be many people in the town with the same name. The occupation
may have helped distinquish them from one another even though 90% were
farmers (this is seen on all the
birth, marriage and death records as well). In this case, a muratore,
is a mason or bricklayer.
The third page listed all the subjects and grades. They were graded on
a 1-10 scale. Some of the subjects were (with as good of translations
that I could come up with):
| Composizione |
Writing |
| Dettato |
Dictation |
| Calligrafia |
Calligraphy |
| Problema d'arit. o geom |
Problems of arithmetic or geometry |
| Lettura |
Reading |
| Spiegazioni |
Speaking
|
| Grammatica |
Grammar |
| Arit.,Geom.,Cont.,Econ. |
?? |
| Educ. mor., Dir. e Dov. |
?? |
| Lavori |
Work |
Her final average was 76/100. She had no absences during the year.
There were four report periods during the year and there were four
places where a parent had to sign - it was signed three times by her
father, Giovanni Carlini.
At the bottom, this was written:
Risultato
Finale
Promossa alla 5° classe
li 15 settembre 1911
il Direttore
Felice Frazzini
The report card was printed by STAB O. PUTATURO 1910 Castel di Sangro
Street Layout of SPA in
1918-1926
When
Giuliano Colajanni was in the US for the 2008 Dawson Reunion, he gave
me a copy of the town plan for San Pietro Avellana. It is a view of the
town as it existed before its destruction in 1943.
The cover sheet shows the plan was first produced in 1918 with updates
in 1921 and 1926 (click on the image for a larger version):
Very rough translation of the title : "Consolidation of Inhabited
Areas:
Project of the complementary jobs of consolidation of the landslides to
threaten the aforesaid inhabited area".
The town layout (click on the image for a larger version):
Some interesting things to note on this plan. There are two small
chapels - Capella SS
Trinità and Capella S. Liberata.
These were never rebuilt after WWII.
In the book "Vita di Santo Amico", these chapels are mentioned. You can
see that book on the S.Amico
web page (bottom of page 14 of the book).
Heading to the east (on the map, north is to the right) down into the
valley from Piazza
Umberto I, there is a string of nine grist mills
(mulino).
These used and reused the power of falling water to grind
grain. There are two main neighborhoods of the town, the
older neighborhood Rione
S. Rocco and a newer neighborhood Rione S.Vito.
Click here to see
some old postcards from the early 1900's which show the areas mentioned
on this map.
The town layout annotated with names of many streets is below. Other
street names are printed on the map already. The
street annotations were provided by Giuliano Colajanni (click on the
image for a larger version):
Ossario Uncovered in
SPA
Some
photos provided by Giuliano Colajanni in 2008 of an ossario which was
excavated in 2006. An ossario is a building associated with a cemetery
where the bones of people buried were eventually placed. Typically, in
Italy, cemeteries
were reused. My father told me that in his home town, the cemetery was
divided into four sections. Each section was used for 10-25 years and
then they went onto the next quarter section. The graves in that
quarter section were dug up and the bones were placed in a building
called
the Ossario. That cleared that section of the cemetery for more burials.
The ossario in these photos is from a very old cemetery that used to be
next to the church. I'm not sure when that cemetery was used but it
must have been hundreds of years ago. The cemetery does not show up on
the 1921 town plan shown above. As the excavation progressed and bones
were uncovered, they were moved to the Ossario at the current SPA Cemetery.
The San Pietro
Avellana Church Archives
Giuliano Colajanni sent me this photograph in Aug of 2008. These are
the church records fromn SS Pietro e Paolo Chiesa. These go back to
1612. You can see the 1852
Status Animrum (Stato della Popolazione) and 1869
Status Animarum.
Giuliano went through these and photographed the pages which showed the
records of my Frazzini and diTella ancestors.
Here is a list of books that someone drew up:
Book
1 Battezzati
1612-1688,
Matrimoni
1627-1688, Battezzati
Matrimoni
1738-1780
2 Morti
1688-1752
3 Battezzati
1690-1735
4 morti
1755-1779
5 Battezzati Matrimoni morti 1779-1801
6 Battezzati Matrimoni morti 1811-1823
7 morti
1824-1853
8 Matrimoni
1824-1865
9 ??
10 Battezzati
1829-1843
11 Status Animarum
1852
12 Morti
1854-1880
13 Matrimoni
1866-1913
14 Staus Animarum I
1869
15 Status Animarum II
1869
16 Morti
1881-1900
17 Morti
1901-1938
18 Battezzati
1894-1901
19 Battezzati
1902-1918
20 Battezzati
1919-1924
SPA Trip Report 2010
Here are photos taken by Justine Lawson (granddaughter of
Antonio
Gentile and Anna Luisa Frazzini) in May of 2010. Justine wrote:
Mark,
Here is a link
to some photos of our trip to SPA. I wasn't able to tag the
photos so I'll provide info on their names.
We met Irma
Tonti Colaianni.
Her mother was Berardina Frazzini.
Irma Tonti married Ugo Colaianni. She is the lady
in the
blue sweater. We are making cookies together. They
own
a store in SPA where they make bread and cookies and sells various
items. In one photo, we are at her house. Her
mother in law
is sitting in a chair and her son, Antonio Colaianni and Chris (my
husband) are sitting on the couch. Irma and Ugo's daughter,
Cinzia, wasn't present.
Also present in
the photos is Ugo's sister, Gemma Colaianni.
Next, we met up
with Antonio
Carratelli and his wife, Giuseppina and his daughter Sabrina (they have
another daughter, Rosina who wasn't presnent) and the grandmother,
Rosina.
Also present is
Giuseppe Carratelli (Antonio's brother).
Irma's mother and Antonio and Giuseppe's mother were sisters
who were also sisters with my grandmother, Anna Frazzini.
Giuseppe
proudly showed us a
carving into a rock that he did. It is located on a bluff
overlooking the town.
In one photo you see Sabrina holding a baby. That
is her
cousin. She is with her Aunt and grandmother (Giuseppina's
sister
and mother) along with her father. We visited the museum and
the
little church in the woods.
Enjoy!
http://gallery.me.com/medsrme#100098&view=null&bgcolor=black&sel=0 |
SPA Trip Report
I found these photos on Flickr. I don't know the people who posted them
but I'd like to hear from them.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/9470308@N05/with/747757726/
Date: Fri, 3 Apr 2015
21:51:35 -0400
Subject:
From: P Morelli <pmm1204gmail.com>
Hello Mark
I know who the
posted those pictures at
https://www.flickr.com/photos/9470308@N05/with/747757726/
They were
posted by Sarah
Morelli--- who is the daughter of Tom and Cindy (deceased) Morelli---
Tom is the son of Paul A. and Nina Morelli (both deceased) of
Youngstown Ohio. Nina was born in San Pietro and her maiden
name
is DiLorenzo ( I think).
I am also
interested in doing a story for WQED on the picnic--- (I work
for WQED)
Are you in
Pittsburgh?
Let me know.
Pierina Morelli |
Bust of Giuseppe
Colaianni
Bill 'Vivi' Colianni sent these photos. Bill is the nephew of Giuseppe
Colaianni. The photos were taken by Concetta DiCianno.
Giuseppe "Joe" Colaianni immigrated to the US and lived in Livingston,
MT, Minneapolis, MN and Chicago, IL. He was very successful and send
more to SPA to build a Kindergarden (or Asilo). This bust was erected
to him before WWII and was placed in the Asilo. Somehow, the bust
survived the War and was erected in the newly rebuilt Asilo. The bust
is the work of Nicola Fiocca (Carovilli 1885-1948).
Joe died in Paris, France while returning from a trip to Italy. His
obituary:
1948-09-27 Chicago
Tribune (IL)
JOSEPH S. COLIANNI,
RETIRED CONTRACTOR, DIES IN PARIS AT 68
Joseph S, Colianni,
68, of Santa
Ana, Cal., a former Oak Park contractor, died in Paris Saturday,
relatives here were notified yesterday. He was returning with his wife,
Lucia, and his son-in-law, Joseph Nardulli (Mark's note:
Narducci)
,
from a visit to Naples and Rome, where he was awarded the rank of
Commander of the Grand Cross, a papal honor, by the Vatican. In 1934 he
was awarded the rank of Knight Commander of the Royal Crown by the
Italian government in recognition of his charity work here and in
Italy. In addition to his widow, Mr. Colianni, who moved from this area
five years ago, is survived by a daughter, Mrs. Bernice Nardulli, and
three brothers, John, Peter, and Paul, a sanitary district trustee.
 |
Da distruzione e
morte immutate nel tempo Risorse
la riconoscenza di San Pietro Avellana
per il comm.Giuseppe Colaianni
Benefattore.
From destruction or
death unaltered in time of riches
Worthy of thanks from San Pietro Avellana
per il Commentatore Giuseppe Colaianni
Benefactor.
|
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